Lecture Seven: A Proposal for the Study of Iranian Cultural Epics

An Introduction to the History of Art and Culture of Iran

Ariasp dadbeh

Iran is a land steeped in history, in the sense that despite its enduring continuity over a long span of time, it has experienced various stages of evolving consciousness throughout its existence. As we, the inheritors of this long-standing culture, look to our heritage today, our legitimate claim to it hinges on our ability to recognize, name, and assimilate the transformations of our spirit over time through new awareness and the wisdom of our age. In legal terms, inheritance is a concept that ensures property rights. The phrase “cultural heritage” is a relatively new term, referring to a right that heirs acquire through awareness. Here, it is knowledge that actualizes “intellectual ownership.”

From now on, in these lectures, we intend to examine the historical trajectory of Iran’s cultural life within broad categories that we perceive as cycles of birth and rebirth. We will study the relationship of each historical period with the “initial birth,” or in other words, the foundations of the establishment of this culture.

It is evident that on this path, we need special tools and terminology. Sometimes, borrowing terms established to explain the history of Western culture is useful and effective, and at other times, we must inevitably create terms that fit our specific needs or extract different meanings from existing names. These are terms with a long history of contemplation, undoubtedly equipped with multifaceted meanings. The new proposals presented here are attempts to define the intended semantic boundaries, which, if considered, can lead to the refinement or enrichment of words and meanings within this framework.

The content of the upcoming lectures will be organized under a proposed periodization that examines the history of Iranian culture. This periodization begins after the initial birth period around the 5th millennium BCE and subsequent transformations in the mid-2nd millennium BCE. From this stage, Iranian cultural history will be studied in several major periods:
• The first period spans from approximately the 7th-8th century BCE until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.
• The second period covers from around the 2nd-3rd century BCE to the 10th-11th century CE / 4th-5th century AH.
• The third period extends from around the 11th century CE / 5th century AH until the Constitutional Revolution.
• The fourth period ranges from the Constitutional Revolution to the present day.

These historical divisions segment the timeline into periods within which a “system,” as defined in these lectures, has developed. Each system encompasses broad dimensions that are not confined to the realm of visual arts alone. For instance, the first three periods roughly correspond with significant transformations in other areas, such as the periodization of the Persian language—Old Persian, Middle Persian, and New Persian. Additionally, as we will see, in the important changes of the third period, there is a meaningful correlation between what happened in the visual arts and what figures like Malek o-Sho’arā Bahār described in Persian literary stylistics, and what Mohammad Karim Pirnia articulated in architectural stylistics. Furthermore, on another level, using Dr. Javad Tabatabai’s theory, a significant relationship between these transformations and the course of Iranian political thought can be traced.

Therefore, it is necessary first to provide an introduction explaining certain terms such as totem ¹, icon ², sign ³, symbol ⁴, theme ⁵, manner ⁶, style ⁷, school ⁸, and finally, “system” and what is meant by it in this context.

Human attention to natural forces such as the power of animals, the longevity of ancient trees, the immortality of mountains, and similar attributes is a common characteristic of our human spirit. In this primary and fundamental perception, humans find objects of fear or reverence in natural phenomena and create totems. Thus, some of the earliest manifestations of “image” are the recreations of totems and archetypes that reflect a primordial essence in the consciousness of human groups. At this level of awareness, dance and music are among the most flourishing arts, carrying the natural inclinations of the human spirit.

The function of architecture in its primitive form, adapted to the climate, is mainly a way of constructing a roof with the most accessible materials to create a shelter that protects human life from natural dangers. Artistic heritage in many regions—especially in climates described as “effortless” or “inexertible,” as explained in previous lectures—continued within the confines of these primary human needs, even as populations grew and living areas expanded, until the modern era.

One of the characteristics of Iranian culture is its ability to cultivate countless themes, some of which have endured as long as the cultural life of this land itself.
One of these ancient themes is “cleaving” or “dārita,” which conveys multiple, and sometimes contradictory, meanings. This theme appears multiple times in the story of Jamshid, which can be seen as a narrative about the beginning of the land of Iran. In the tale, Jamshid saves people from cold and darkness and replaces the land with a square realm of Var-e Jamkard. He then blows the air in three intervals to open time and uses a golden spade to tear the earth and expand the space.

These stories arise from the awareness of a people who domesticate their surroundings through plowing the land and expanding their settlements. In the agricultural life of plowing, sowing seeds, roots penetrating the depths of the soil, and splitting the darkness of the depths with life-giving roots, the experience was so meaningfully formative that many of the fundamental concepts of agricultural life in Iranian culture are explained through this experience.

In navigating the long and winding paths, sometimes a secondary awareness emerges, where observed phenomena and natural manifestations take the form of “icons” or “faces” that evoke shared consciousness or represent the acceptance of a specific pact within a community. Such selectivity in the phenomena of the surrounding world and transforming them into representations that reflect collective duties and desires is a significant transformation. In “faces,” there is no trace of the totemic awe. Similarly, human societies often create signs and symbols.
A sign refers to marks that denote something beyond itself but lacks deeper meaning, while symbols encompass broader and more profound layers of meaning.

For example, the symbol of Mithras is a cross. In Iranian culture, for a period, his image as a young man standing upright with a mace in hand and standing on a lotus flower became a type of “face” or “icon.” In Roman culture, however, the icon of Mithras is different; it depicts a young man with a tilted hat performing a specific act of plunging a dagger into the shoulder of a bull.
Additionally, foundational cultures are creators of their own unique “motifs” or “themes,” whose layered meanings elevate discourse to a more complex level. The lifespan of each motif—for example, the Tree of Life or Pietà (a mother cradling her deceased child)—may gradually fade or, conversely, become enriched and potent depending on its capacity to carry meaning through historical transformations.

It is important to note that the evolution of a meaning into a motif follows a historical (time-consuming) and collective (non-individual) path. In other words, “individual innovations” in any culture typically do not involve the sudden creation of new motifs but rather the selection and reactivation of existing motifs, renewing and enriching them with new meanings.
In writing the history of art, examining a theme can sometimes illuminate the trajectory of intellectual development. This approach reveals how the cultural womb has been able to cultivate the seeds of awareness over extended periods. It also shows what means were employed to propagate these seeds and how, despite tremendous fluctuations, the conditions for activating ancient motifs have repeatedly been prepared.

One of the characteristics of Iranian culture is its ability to nurture countless themes, some of which have astonishingly long lives, comparable to the entire cultural history of the land. These themes often begin in a flat form with simple connotations and, through repeated returns, layers of meaning are added, resulting in a multifaceted and complex existence. Consequently, explaining and translating a theme with all its conscious or unconscious meanings that are directly invoked in the minds and souls of the people of this culture can be very challenging and sometimes even impossible.

The deity Mithras is the guardian of covenants and the greatest avenger of oath-breakers. His symbol is the cross, as well as the first light of dawn. Mithras’s role is to pierce through darkness. In Parthian and Sassanian traditions, he is depicted with a radiant halo (aura) to signify divine glory. In many of his depictions, he holds a cleaving tool; in Sassanian reliefs, he is shown with a mace, and in Roman iconography, he wields a dagger. In his later Iranian cultural form, he appears as a lion holding a sword with the sun rising behind him. The continuance of the norms represented by Mithras is reflected in the common portrayal of saints in the guise of a modest young man with a sword resting on his knees.

Dawn announces the escape from darkness
Night has departed, and dawn announces with the light of the morning
In the well of fear, hope relied on the unseen moon
And now dawn announces with the sight of the sun
From the shepherd of the night, the flock of night has fled
And dawn announces the departure and escape
The tarnished armor of the night is refreshed with a smile
Dawn announces with the sharpened sword
Again from the blaze of the ash-covered dawn’s meadow
Dawn announces the fire that has claimed the soul
From the coquetry and allure of the stars and the secrets of the night
Dawn announces much that has been seen and heard
The dawn’s glittering scarf and the emerald-hued dagger
Dawn announces with the severed throat
The fallen stars of the night’s veil have become martyrs
And dawn announces the tearing of those veils
Oh, the faded color that was, and what has become, from it
Dawn announces the color faded from the face
The herald of the caravan of the enlightened, hope
Dawn announces the escape from darkness

In this poem, Akhavan (the Iranian poet) portrayal of Mithras captures the essence of cultural symbols and the deity’s role: as the harbinger of dawn, Mithras represents the victory over darkness and the beginning of a new light.

One of these ancient themes is “cleaving” or “dārita,” which carries multiple, and sometimes contradictory, meanings.
Perhaps one of the earliest examples of this theme is the motif of a human striking a dagger into an animal. In the iconography of Mithras (Mithra), he is depicted in a scene where he plunges a dagger into the shoulder of a bull, which is also a reference to cleaving the earth (bull/geo). This theme appears multiple times in the story of Jamshid, which can be seen as the narrative of the inception of the land of Iran. Jamshid rescues people from cold and darkness and replaces them in the square realm of Var-e Jamkard. He then cleaves the earth three times, expanding it. ⁹

These stories arise from the awareness of peoples who, through plowing the land and breaking the soil, expand their sustenance and increase their domains. In this way, they tame and dominate the world through domestication. In a series of motifs, most prominently seen in Achaemenid art, the depiction of humans cleaving or tearing apart composite animals symbolizes human dominance (we will return to this topic in future discussions).

In agricultural life, plowing the land, sowing seeds, and the roots penetrating the depths of the soil, along with cleaving through the darkness of the depths with life-giving roots, provided such a meaningful experience that in Iranian agrarian culture, creation and the first emergence are explained as “bunn-dahesh” (the root of creation). This experience is described through the processes of cleaving, penetrating, and rooting.

In Iranian languages, a single word can carry several different and sometimes contradictory meanings. ¹⁰ For example, the first part of the word “druz” (دُروژ) is related to terms such as “darydan” (دریدن, to tear), “dard” (درد, pain), “dar” (در, door), and all share the core meaning of “dārita” (دَریتا), which revolves around the concept of cleaving or wounding. On the other hand, the second part of the word comes from the root “zhi/gi” (ژی/گی), which means light or illumination.
Thus, the meaning emerging from “cleaving” encompasses a layer of experience related to suffering, scratching, pain, tearing, and separation, while another layer conveys meanings of cracking the surface, penetrating roots, opening, awareness, and light.

Mithras, the deity of covenants and the greatest avenger of oath-breakers, is symbolized by the first light of dawn and is tasked with cleaving through darkness. In Parthian and Sassanian iconography, Mithras is depicted with a radiant halo (aura) to signify divine glory. He is often shown holding a cleaving tool; in Sassanian reliefs, he holds a mace, while in Roman depictions, he wields a dagger. In his later Iranian cultural form, he appears as a lion wielding a sword with the sun rising behind him.

The enduring norms that Mithras represents are seen in the common depiction of saints as modest youths with a sword resting on their knees. In this context, images of kings or saints with a sword symbolize dominance in various meanings. Parthian and Sassanian kings are sometimes portrayed holding a sword as if it were a cross. The depiction of Christ with a sword, especially in Byzantine realms, was influenced by this symbolic system and represents his fierce, cleaving power over the heavens and the earth. ¹¹

Over time, some simple and unidimensional meanings evolve into motifs with multifaceted connotations. For example, the concept of “cleaving” carries, on one level, experiences of suffering, scratching, pain, tearing, and separation; while on another level, it signifies cracking the surface, growth, opening, awareness, and illumination.
In this context, depictions of kings or saints with a sword symbolize “dominance” in multiple meanings. Parthian and Sassanian kings are sometimes portrayed with a sword held like a cross, symbolizing their authority. The depiction of Christ with a sword, particularly in Byzantine art, reflects a borrowing from this symbolic system and represents his fierce, cleaving power over the realms of heaven and earth.

Following this sequence and building upon ancient motifs, later periods developed terms like “daring the veil” or “unveiling the hidden” to capture more subtle meanings. These concepts were created to understand deeper interpretations and open new horizons for the spirit.
From one branch of the motif of cleaving and splitting emerges one of the most powerful themes in Iranian culture: separation (faraq). The universal and human experience of separation has been enriched with subtle meanings in this culture. The pain of separation is the pain of fragmentation and tearing apart. One of the oldest metaphors referring to the cry of separation is a poem likely composed in the 4th century, which is among the earliest examples of modern Persian.

This poem, which appears to have roots in an older Parthian example, compares the sound of tearing cloth to the lament of strings due to the pain of separation:
“When you tear the coarse cloth, it makes a lamenting sound, What is that sound, tell me, O wise one? It is as if it says, ‘Do not separate me from my companion.’”

Similarly, Sanai expresses a related meaning in the sound of breaking wood, likely drawing from an older oral proverb:
“When you break the wood, it makes a cracking sound, This cracking sound is due to separation.”^۱۲

In the continuation of this tradition, Rumi, in a more beautiful example, refers to the melodious sound of the reed as the lament of its separation from the reed bed.
Persian literature is replete with lyrical texts, some of which have origins that date back at least as far as the Parthian era. In this lyrical tradition, we encounter a specific meaning of “love.” ¹³ Love is a virtue; it is a pain that elevates a person from their natural state to a higher, more distinguished position. It makes them “spiritually aware” and bestows upon them courage and goodness.

The pursuit of love and revelry seemed easy at first,
Yet in acquiring these virtues, my soul burned in the end.
You too, strive, O master, and be not deprived of love,
For a servant is not bought with the fault of ineptitude.

The motif of the flower and the bird is one of the ancient themes born from the confluence of these multifaceted meanings; it evokes a blend of elevating and creative love, while simultaneously being sorrowful. It reminds us of the fragile nature of beauty, the vulnerability of perfection, and the fleeting opportunity for union.

“The nightingale learned the art of speech from the grace of the flower; otherwise, how would such verses and ghazals be ingrained in its beak?”

“Ferdowsi begins the story of Rustam and Esfandiar, which is a tale of a painful confrontation between two ancient ideas, with this motif:
Who knows what the nightingale is singing?
What does it find beneath the flower?
It laments the death of Esfandiar;
It has nothing but the lament for him as a memento.”

In lyrical literature, the blooming of a bud is interpreted as the tearing open of the flower’s collar, symbolizing the moment of beauty’s revelation and the unveiling that allows the nightingale to behold the flower’s face. At the same time, this very act of tearing and revealing leads to the wilting of the flower, which the nightingale cannot endure and therefore departs from.

The motif of the flower and the nightingale, which had previously appeared mainly in Persian literature and occasionally in artworks, becomes significantly prominent in the art of the Zand period. In fact, this ancient motif flourishes in a new form that we refer to as an introduction to Europeanization. Shiraz of the Zand dynasty, which was built after the disaster of the fall of Isfahan, is completely immersed in flower-and-nightingale motifs. In contrast to the harrowing experiences of the past, each mosque and house in this city, having survived a great calamity, reflects a vibrant and creative cultural renaissance through its walls and doors.

The motif of separation, in its simplest form, also manifests in the image of the candle and the butterfly. If the love of the nightingale becomes the most enchanting melody, the result of the pain of separation from the honey of light is the candle (wax), which illuminates the gathering and breaks the darkness. This loving candle, burning in the separation from its sweet beloved (honey), represents an existence consumed by longing.

One night, I recall, my eyes did not close / I heard the butterfly speaking with the candle, ‘I am in love, and if I burn, it is fitting / But why do you weep and lament?’ The candle replied, ‘Oh my poor admirer / The honey of my sweet beloved has departed from me. Just as sweetness departs from me / So does fire consume me like Farhad. And it spoke, with every moment a flood of pain / Flowing down its pale face. ‘Oh claimant of love, it is not your affair / For you have neither patience nor the strength to endure.
The competition between the candle and the butterfly is one of purity, courage, and perseverance—essential elements of epic morality. Saadi’s ghazal concludes with a clear resolution on this matter.

A true devotee does not seek a goal, / Even if arrows and stones rain upon him. / Do not go to the sea, I warned you, / And if you go, surrender yourself to the storm.

From one of the branches of the motif of splitting and cleaving arises one of the most powerful themes in Iranian culture: “separation” or “farewell.” The pain of separation is the pain of disjunction and fragmentation.
The motif of the flower and the bird is an ancient theme that arises from the combination of these multifaceted meanings. It evokes a blend of elevating and desirable love, yet also brings forth a sense of suffering. It reminds us of the fragile nature of beauty, the vulnerability of perfection, and the fleeting moments of union.

Shiraz of the Zand dynasty, rebuilt after the disaster of the fall of Isfahan, is completely immersed in the flower-and-bird motif. In relation to the profound experience of having survived a great calamity, every mosque and house in this city exudes a vibrant and creative elegy of cultural revival, as if it is emerging from the walls in a celebratory, renewed form.

Other terms that should be noted are “school,” “style,” and “method.” The term “school” or “diction” refers to a system of creation supported by a kind of scholarly awareness that has its own rules and texts; it has a method of instruction and thus possesses a transferable quality. Schools have historical and territorial roots. This means they result from a transformation in awareness within a specific time and place. Although they may initially manifest in one branch, such as architecture or literature, they establish clear connections with the results of awareness transformation in other branches. At the same time, schools, as mentioned, are transferable and thus can be borrowed. They also continue to exist over time. Public acceptance and the capacity for instruction create a form of cultural accumulation, which is a determining factor in the formation of a school. The emergence of a school is the result of collective effort. ¹⁴

Each school fosters its own “styles” and “methods.” “Styles” are various ways of perceiving and expressing ideas and inner experiences within the framework of a school, while “methods” refer to particular approaches of interpretation. Methods are the result of individual creativity. Thus, no style or method emerges in a vacuum or outside of a historical school. ¹⁵

Within the framework of the Flemish painting school, the Baroque style emerges, and within this style, Rembrandt develops a personal method. Many painters work in the style of Rembrandt within this Baroque style and school. In this sense, methods are styles in the making. Similarly, Jalil Shahnaz is a musician with a personal method who performs within the Montazemiyeh school and the Isfahan style. Or, Mirza Gholamreza, within the Nastaʿliq style, has his own personal method.

To clarify the dimensions of the definitions we have discussed so far, it is useful to consider how the scope and function of what emerges in societies with varying degrees of complexity can differ significantly. For example, totems typically arise in smaller tribes or groups and remain confined to their limited context. For instance, the tradition of mask-making within a tribe is based on the mythological awareness of that community and is functional within that context; if removed from its ecological and cultural environment, it would lose its meaning entirely. However, icons, which emerge from a different level of awareness, can even spread from one cultural center to another. Similarly, some societies borrow motifs from cultures that originated them and adapt them according to their own nature, especially in cultures that have developed at the intersection of major centers, such as in India and China, where many composite motifs have been created. Likewise, schools such as the Khurasan architectural school, the Venetian painting school, or the Bauhaus design school have had the capacity for expansion and education, and all have spread across temporal and spatial dimensions.

In the modern era, where social ideals of “freedom” and “law” have emerged with new meanings, one of the enduring works that has left a lasting impression is the song Morgh-e Sahar (The Dawn Bird). In this poem, Malek-ol-Sho’ara Bahar utilized the motif of the dawn bird to advocate for justice and freedom in its contemporary context. Despite the cultural decline of vitality during this period, and the song’s reflection of the diminishing epic layers and its own plaintive tone indicating this state, the motif still carries connotations that have the power to resonate deeply with the souls of the people of this culture.

At a higher level, numerous varieties within local spheres of creativity, or the multitude of schools and styles, only achieve unity when they are realized within a “historical system.”
In this context, we use the term “system” to describe a complex and interconnected structure of social systems, customs, beliefs, creations, and all aspects of civil life. In other words, it refers to a collection of human civil life elements that orbit within a particular consciousness or are organized and woven together under the gravitational force of a specific level of awareness. The meaningful interactions among these elements, which together create an organized system, are referred to as a system.

In this sense, a system denotes a more intricate apparatus than the organic, self-evident, and natural harmony of different aspects of life, which even exists in the most primitive forms of human existence. The preconditions for the development of cultural systems are large human communities that have encountered more complex questions and have been able to offer their unique solutions to difficult issues across various facets of civil life.

An important point, though seemingly obvious, that needs to be emphasized is that a cultural system does not emerge out of nothing. Behind every foundational system, there has always been a backdrop of productive centers. For example, the preceding contexts of Romanesque or Roman systems are rooted in the achievements of Greece, the Aegean, Etruria, and other cities. A system comes into existence when the diverse experiences of various peoples and smaller human groups drive them towards a common framework for addressing fundamental questions. Consequently, the ways in which people understand natural life and social solutions tend to converge towards a unified approach.

What happens in historical transformation that causes one of the many scattered centers, each thriving in its local context, to suddenly rise above the rest and gain lasting influence? The answer lies in the reciprocal relationship between “belonging” and “power.” The transformation of power structures is a result of changes in affiliations and legal systems of ownership, and it also impacts them. In the foundation of a state, the sense of belonging of people extends from a “place” to a “political unit,” or a more abstract concept of territory, which is different from a “natural ecosystem.” Here, the focus is more on a “spiritual system” to which the destiny of the people is tied.

In the previous lectures, we referred to Panofsky’s theories and his three foundational concepts (form, idea, content) in explaining the history of European art and the theoretical framework developed for it. In analyzing this discussion, we briefly suggested considering a fourth layer. This fourth layer provides us with a tool to articulate what we understand about the diversity and differences in the spirit of creations across various schools and distinct cultural systems.

In fact, each cultural system represents a unique and specific “world” of its own, providing different answers to the questions of “humanity,” “existence,” and “time.” This world is reflected in all its aspects of creativity; in architecture, crafts, literature, music, imagery, and sciences, and it is what distinguishes it from others. Certainly, at first glance, this independent nature is apparent and recognizable in the form and appearance of the work. As noted, this form and appearance have a direct relationship with the idea, and the idea is inextricably linked with the content of the work. These three elements are nourished by a source, or “world,” which is the fourth layer or the most hidden aspect of a work, and the strength and creativity of this layer ensure the fertility, revival, and potential for the renewal of form and idea and content. This fourth layer, which manifests in all aspects of a cultural system from poetry to imagery and sounds, paradoxically withdraws and escapes despite its apparent presence. Addressing this fourth layer is not easily attainable, and without a comprehensive view of the total achievements of a historical system in its various branches, contemplating the “world” that nurtures all of this will not be possible.

In other words, each historical system occurs under the unique establishment of civilization. We use the term “establishment” not to reduce it to mere innovation in form and shape, because what emerges is a product of a transformation in consciousness and thus has an organic connection with all aspects of civic life. In reality, one must look beyond the realm of art; if such a context for the transformation of consciousness arises in time and place, its impact will not only appear in a few aesthetic tendencies but in all the foundations and institutions of the historical society. This transformation encompasses city and urban planning, social administration systems, and all other aspects briefly mentioned in the discussion of responsibilities.

Therefore, it is not surprising to find that cultural systems are so resilient, as their initial establishment is often based on such deep foundations that even in times of political crisis and major changes in the shape of affairs, they continue to operate and can turn the dominance of any prevailing power into defeat within their domain.

For example, with the fall of the Roman Empire, although Rome disappeared from the stage of history, its essence spread throughout Europe. The Germanic tribes that conquered Rome gradually became the inhabitants of the Roman cities, and the most resilient infrastructures and systems of civic duties that had been part of the Roman urban identity continued to exist in a different form. Even Christianity took on the characteristics of the Roman system within this cultural realm, to the extent that Catholicism can be recognized as a Roman religion. Although the Roman Empire perished, the world established in that country continued to live on, and its storied existence extends into every corner of present-day Europe.

Craftsmanship in shaping raw materials into something beautiful, unique, and self-made, while maintaining simplicity, is a complex endeavor. From this perspective, within a historical framework, craftsmanship or, in other words, “tekhne” (skill), is the domain of the spirit’s revelation. The product of craftsmanship in this domain possesses a gem that reveals itself simultaneously in each individual work and remains concealed. An aspect of the “awareness” manifested in art is present in the material form of each piece, but its entirety becomes apparent when we consider the various cultural facets in which this awareness is multiplied across scattered particles. In other words, an artwork is the multifaceted reality of the “idea”; it is a manifestation of the mind’s encounter with the “absolute”. Without a conception of an idea, thinking is not possible; the various dimensions of this idea find their manifestation in diverse aspects of civic life, sometimes in words and poetry, and sometimes in the design of living spaces or social systems.

In the discussions and analyses presented so far, we have endeavored to understand the conditions that laid the groundwork for the establishment of the early history of Iranian culture. From this point onward, our focus will shift to the cultural systems that emerged within this culture.
As we have mentioned, every cultural system is born within the embrace of a historical geography. In the history of art, we do not recognize a cultural system, or even a school, that does not belong to a historical land. Looking at the history of art and world culture, among the five founding centers, we will find that only three cultural centers possess a system in the sense described.

“Classicism” is the most significant European school of thought and a term used by European theorists to describe the nature of their historical system. Its development took place in the Greek-Roman world and the political-cultural geography of the Roman Empire, which had absorbed the achievements of earlier cultures (Aegean, Etruscan, Minoan, Athens, Troy, Ionian, etc.).

The Cultural Sphere of Rome
In the establishment of Rome, a Roman system comes into existence, from which the school of “Classicism” emerges as the greatest European school. Classicism is a term used by European theorists to describe the essence of their historical system. The foundation of Classicism lies in the Greek-Roman world and the political-cultural geography of the Roman Empire, which absorbed the achievements of earlier cultures (Aegean, Etruscan, Minoan, Athenian, Trojan, Ionian, etc.).

The system that emerged with the establishment of Rome defined its existence through periods of rupture and subsequent revival of Classicism. The initial genesis occurred with the establishment of Rome, followed by a period of rupture during the Middle Ages, leading to the Renaissance (Rebirth). From the Renaissance onward, we witness the emergence of various styles until we reach the modern era, which seems to have ushered in a new system: Modernism, which transformed all aspects of modern human life and established a new intellectual tradition.

Nevertheless, all these systems, schools, and styles derive their meaning from their initial establishment and remain connected to their primordial nature like threads. Thus, it is not surprising to see that the foundations of Modernism are built upon the Renaissance, and the transformation of the Renaissance is understood in relation to the Middle Ages. ¹⁶

In the urban system of China, the highest administrative authority and the residence of the highest-ranking officials are located in the “Forbidden City,” a place completely inaccessible to the public at all times. This arrangement is similarly observed in Nara, the ancient capital of Japan, and in Korea, where viewing the emperor’s residence was considered impossible.

Cultural Sphere of China
In the geography of the Far East, the first glimmers of the establishment of a historical land and political geography in the precise sense emerge in China. The initial kernel of this awareness is found in the thought of Deism, which manifests its spatial realization in the Tang Dynasty and its political will in Emperor Tang, while its moral-social system is reflected in Confucian thought.
Around this cultural core, satellite civilizations such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and neighboring regions emerged, each potentially creating independent styles with their own unique characteristics. Nonetheless, everything that appeared in architecture, calligraphy, painting, pottery, music, and even the major frameworks of urban administration in these satellite regions of China resulted from this initial cultural genesis and occurred under the umbrella of the Chinese cultural system.

In this culture, the genesis occurred only once and has had a continuous, uninterrupted extension. The entirety of Chinese culture can be identified under a single system, which, with its schools, styles, and methods, has continued its course across a vast geography and a long history without disruption.

In the period starting from the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE and extending until the 10th to 11th centuries CE, known as the “Heroic Era,” a distinct form of mathematics and geometric sciences emerged. This had a direct impact on architecture, leading to the development of tall, vaulted domes with large spans and elevated porticos. The evolution of this architectural style, which gradually improved upon its challenges, continued with the development of four-iwan structures and reached increasing levels of intricate refinement in design.

The Cultural Sphere of Iran
In this cultural sphere, with the infusion of experiences from the early cities, the first system emerged with the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire. This system, which will be referred to as “Persian” or more aptly “Parsian” in future discussions, first manifested the historical spirit in a form we call “Iranian ideology.” Here, too, after the initial establishment, historical life continued through experiences of rupture and then rejuvenation. Moreover, the unique geographical position of the region, situated in the center of the world, turned the inclination and need for interaction with other cultural systems into a lasting trait that contributed to its survival and flourishing.

It should be noted here that the cultural sphere of India did not give rise to a system in the sense defined here. Although significant artistic schools have emerged in this sphere, particularly in dance, music, sculpture, and temple architecture, the foundation of Vedic culture in India is based on diversity without unity. This cultural fragmentation has posed significant obstacles to the birth of a cohesive system under a centralized establishment that could create a unified meaning of land and nation. ¹⁷

Similarly, this issue applies to the ancient culture that moved and migrated among the lands of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Yemen, the Levant, and parts of Iran. Ancient culture expanded primarily in the realm of oral tradition and law. Storytelling, especially the emphasis on ancestral genealogies, which in Mesopotamia and Egypt reached the status of divine kingship or deification of the king-priest, often took the place of history. In ancient Egypt, a civilization emerged over a long period that can be identified as the birth of a cultural system. Ancient Egyptian culture was thoroughly engaged with the duality of death and life, focusing on the afterlife. The brilliant achievements of ancient Egypt in architecture, illustration, writing, and land administration were eventually severed, with its continued existence becoming confined to rituals and ceremonies inherited from the ancient culture.

Transformation of Cultural Systems in Iran
We now aim to explore the history of the transformations of the cultural systems that emerged in Iran, and briefly touch upon various schools and styles within each discussion.

Depending on the subject of study, numerous classifications of historical materials can be proposed, each having its own utility based on a particular perspective, although such classifications are often somewhat contentious. Here, we present a proposed periodization for studying the culture, in its various manifestations, with the goal of establishing a meaningful order that facilitates the understanding of the works and productions of each period in this long history, and enables tracking the evolution of these systems in relation to their preceding and succeeding contexts.

Various criticisms have been made regarding the efforts undertaken so far in this area. Typically, in the existing classifications, the focus has often been on specific branches of culture and art, with less attention paid to the connections between different branches. Moreover, undue emphasis has been placed on sudden historical events such as the rise and fall of ruling dynasties or the occupation of territories by invaders, while the role of shifts in consciousness has not been sufficiently considered. Terms such as Seljuk Art, Mongol Art, Timurid Art, and styles like Arabesque are examples of this issue. Placing the history of Iranian thought within these classifications, which are based on ruling dynasties and tribal affiliations, has produced conflicting concepts that are at odds with the essence of Iranian culture and reduces the notion of the Iranian nation to an amorphous mass, rendering it less meaningful and effective in studying history.

History is realized in geography. For history to be born, to grow, and to continue, it needs a territory. The history of any nation or people is its place in time, just as the land or country is its abode in space. (…) Perhaps this is why ‘non-place’ leads nomadic peoples to replace history with genealogy. For example, among the Arabs, genealogy followed a vertical line—disconnected from the land—tracing lineage from father to father and, after a long journey, connecting to mythical ancestors. Similarly, among the Mongols, lineage reached the Sky God (Tengri) through several generations. ¹⁸ In both these examples, ‘history’ lacks horizontal expansion and earthly narrative; it starts from above and descends in a straight line to the tribal leaders, not to their land. In these cases, history either resides behind the ancestors or is directly linked to the sky, whereas among settled peoples, the emergence of history—and with it, civilization—requires a geographic territory, a land with climatic and natural conditions, with neighbors and social relations, and so on.”
Shahrokh Meskoob, Chand Goftaar dar Farhange Iran; Iran dar Asia, 1371 (1992)

Some of these types of classifications stem from a perspective that likens the cultural unity of Iran to that of European countries, which, long before national states were established in recent centuries, were all part of the Christian Republic. However, continuity in Iran is a cultural matter, not a tradition in the sense of “tradition” as understood in Europe. ¹⁹

It should be noted here that although in a place like Iran, the map of political and cultural peaks and declines do not necessarily align perfectly, this does not mean the absence of their connection. As previously mentioned, in this land, the agreements that led to cohesion, mutual understanding, and ultimately the formation of a nation were of a cultural nature, which had been established prior to the formation of a political territory. Accordingly, throughout history, multiple and sometimes long periods of the absence of national governments did not lead to the collapse of the nation. National life, if not in the realm of political power, continued vibrantly in the realm of culture. This does not negate the role of power in shaping the destiny of culture; it is clear that the presence or absence of a central national government had significant impacts on the fate of this culture. Iran has long been a part of history, and its vibrant and generative core identifies itself as a historical community.

As previously explained, the great transformation known from the era of decorated pottery and the period of settled agriculture and food production coincides with a relatively stable three-thousand-year period in the Iranian plateau during which agrarian culture is established. This stability and security lead to trade and cultural growth, with developments in games, music, rituals of meal preparation, fire-related techniques and material extraction, calendars and counting systems, urban planning, and countless other fields. During this long period, legal practices gradually evolve.

Some scholars consider the end of the second millennium BCE as the approximate time when the transition from the mythic era to the epic period occurred in Iran.
As mentioned, the Iranians’ transition from mythic consciousness is so ancient that Iranian myths were recognized in the modern era through linguistic studies and comparative research with the myths of India or Mesopotamia. Today, we somewhat know that Jamshid, Kayumars, Fereydun, and Siyavash were all myths that, in very ancient times, became figures of our epic history, and continued to exist in a human role, as rulers or heroes.

Another significant rupture in the Shahnameh is explained by the death of Esfandiyar, marking the end of the era of epic heroism. This is a period characterized by intense internal and external conflicts; the content of the “Yadgar-e Zariran” also refers to this era. This story, preserved in Pahlavi manuscripts, indicates that the Parthian origin of this text is “the oldest tragedy and play in Iranian literature.” ²⁰

The subject of this dissertation is the war between the Iranians and the Khiones (later known as the Turanians), which occurs over a change in religious practices in Iran. By removing the layer added during the Sassanian period, which reflects Zoroastrianism, this epic text can be seen as a record of the collective memory from a distant era when a shift in thought and beliefs took place.

As mentioned, the Iranian break from mythological awareness is so ancient that Iranian myths were identified in the modern era through linguistic studies and comparative research with Indian or Mesopotamian myths. Today, we somewhat know that Jamshid, Kayumars, Fereydun, and Siavash were all myths that, in a very distant past, became figures in our epic history and continued to live on in a human role, either as kings or heroes.

The connection between Jamshid and the Indo-Iranian myth of Yama, or the association of Siavash with the dying god of Mesopotamian mythology, has all been addressed in the modern era. In our epic history, Fereydun is a king who divides the world among his three sons. Etymological analysis suggests that Fereydun’s name might refer to a distant era in the depths of history, representing an age of division into three kinds or aspects of the world as perceived by the people inhabiting this land. Even the story of the brothers’ battle and the killing of Iraj may signify a yearning to return to a previous state. It is through such linguistic studies that we understand today that Divs (Daevas) were deities that, in the evolution of awareness in this culture, were rejected as evil beings. In this transformation, Drujwand is a figure rooted in ancient awareness, reflecting a significant shift in the consciousness of the people.

Although identifying these layers, which can be discerned from later written sources, as well as through linguistics and archaeological evidence, is challenging due to their antiquity and the lack of comprehensive research, it appears that we are facing several periods of cognitive transformation. These transformations sometimes influenced people far beyond the Iranian plateau (e.g., the Agricultural Revolution) and established a new mode of living. At other times, they created a distinct system of meaning within a realm later known as the Iranian world (the land of Iraj — Iran-Vej), separating it from its neighbors (the other brothers) and laying the foundation upon which subsequent developments in Iranian culture were built.

Based on current historical documents, we know that at least in the western and northwestern parts of Iran, which have been subject to constant invasions, federations among local powers and neighboring cities formed. From around the 6th century BCE, the consolidation of a mindset that we refer to as “Iranian city-state” led to the establishment of the political territory of Iran.

Art from this period developed under the aegis of the “Persian System” or “Parsian System,” and as explained in the definition of the term “system,” it was a connected ensemble of various aspects of civic life. This system emerged from the centralization of collective forces and was built upon previous experiences and urbanization.

In the background of the establishment of the first cultural system of Iran, there were centers such as Elam, the Medes, the civilization of the Halil River Basin, Shahr-e Sukhteh (the Burnt City), cities beyond the river, Ziwiyeh, Sumer, Babylon, Assyria, and many others. A distinctive type of architecture with dressed stone and characteristic motifs and visual systems emerged, used in all artifacts and bas-reliefs. Inscriptions were written in several languages, and an art form emerged where the system of signs used was familiar and comprehensible to a diverse audience, while the old signs were enriched with new meanings under the influence of this new system of awareness.

In tracing the evolution from mythology to epic, the transformation of gods and demons into human forms of kings and heroes, and the metamorphosis of mythic battles into real wars filled with effort and tension, is the simplest subject. More fundamentally, throughout this transition, the value of wisdom becomes increasingly prominent, and a major shift occurs in the people’s understanding of how to organize and structure the world.

In the transformation, the precious and grand legacy that has passed from the Gathas to the epic, especially in the case of the sons of Wisea, and notably the most prominent among them, Pirán, has undergone a fundamental and profound metamorphosis in the epic compared to earlier examples like Aži Dahāka and Afrāsiyāb. The noble and praiseworthy demeanor and actions of Pirán in the Iranian epic no longer reflect the ungrateful Turanian seeking to overthrow Iranian lands as described in the myth. On the contrary, in the epic, despite the outer layer of his story depicting him as a diligent and loyal general of Afrāsiyāb, Pirán is portrayed as a benevolent problem-solver seeking to end the vicious cycle of enmity and bloodshed. His death is depicted as the most heroic and beautiful death throughout the Iranian epic.

From this ancient period, there was an ongoing dialogue with other cultures, particularly with Greek and ancient cultures. Everything that remains from the Persian system indicates that the initial establishment in Iran was not based on ideas of racial superiority, or the dominance of a single ideology or religion. Similarly, the concept of Iranian identity is not the sole intellectual legacy of this culture. Over a long history, other major intellectual traditions have been added to it. Among the most important of these are Greek thought and ancient traditions, both of which have contributed in a mutually influential relationship, with the exchange of ideas and cultural growth occurring over an extended period. This long history of dialogue with these centers of thought has significantly impacted the cultural fate of both sides. For Iran, all these ideas weave together the fabric of our current nature in such an interwoven manner that none can be separated from the others.

The first period ends with the occupation of the land by the Macedonian army; an event that is not akin to the invasions of nomadic tribes but rather a historical war that destroys national sovereignty and brings defeat on a grand scale.

In the limbo created by the experience of downfall and the comprehensive confrontation with Greek culture, the groundwork for the next period is cultivated. Based on the initial establishment, a new framework emerges, which we refer to as the “Heroic System,” where the seeds of epic thought are nurtured in a more developed sense and expand across various dimensions. Correspondingly, a type of eschatological thinking develops, viewing historical periods as cyclical and unending, never returning to the starting point. These cycles, which encompass significant highs and lows, always promise hope for ascension even in the depths of decline.

In the Heroic System, a particular form of mathematics and geometric sciences emerges, whose developed product continues to stand firm in architecture and evolves into four-iwan architecture. Elevated domed arches with large openings and lofty iwans are born. Likewise, a special visual system based on the repetition and multiplication of modules emerges, which can be traced up to the patterns known as arabesques. A new language develops, with Middle Persian taking shape and new scripts replacing cuneiform writing. Additionally, Persian literature enters a new phase. According to scholars, the formation of epic stories has roots in this period, and the traces of Parthian heroic families are significant and noteworthy in them.

During this period, numerous upheavals occur, including crises in the social and administrative systems of the land, and movements emerge aiming to reform and change ideas and beliefs. Once again, the experience of the fall of the national state happens. Despite this, Iranian culture remains active. It continues to develop through a comprehensive encounter with the ancient tradition, engaging in cultural dialogue, and exchanging beliefs and norms. The renaissance of the heroic epic period takes place in the 4th and 5th centuries AH (10th and 11th centuries CE) in literature, architecture, and visual arts. The Persian language evolves into a new form, and a new script is established for it, resulting in the creation of fundamental texts. Prominent figures emerge in various scientific fields, enhancing ancient knowledge with the wisdom of their time, which is derived from new experiences. Ancient stories are re-composed in new epic forms, and epic and lyrical literature flourishes in the works of Ferdowsi, Nezami, Attar, and philosophical thought in the writings of Sohrevardi and Ibn Sina. Historical writing also reaches its peak in the works of Balami, Biruni, and other great scholars. The Parthian architectural tradition continues, improving its technical challenges and reaching new heights in beauty and refinement.

The meaning of a cultural nation in the continuity of a nation that does not disintegrate in the absence of a national government, and cultural connections, meaning creativity, innovation, and thinking within a coherent system, are more clearly understood here. These connections bring them together under a single umbrella directly and naturally.

From the 4th and 5th centuries AH (10th and 11th centuries CE), the Turkic nomadic tribes who had converted to Islam gradually gained power. The shift in the balance of power between them and the Caliphs not only significantly influenced Iran’s political destiny but also had a profound impact on its cultural trajectory.

From the 11th century CE until the Constitutional Revolution, a period unfolds during which Iran’s governments repeatedly collapse under the influence of Turks, Mongols, and Uzbeks, leading to the formation of various powerful states like the Safavids, as well as unstable and short-lived governments. Despite these disruptions, the intellectual trajectory remains relatively continuous, though gradually declining, to the point where it struggles to engage with new intellectual currents, such as modernism. Over the past millennium, Iran has lost all decisive wars, with victories consistently going to the invaders. Nevertheless, in another arena, Iranian culture has altered the outcome of these conflicts. In the modern era, the Treaty of Turkmenchay signifies a crisis distinct from previous conditions.

With these backgrounds, which serve as a kind of roadmap for future discussions, our historical periodization begins from the point where we recognize its entry into history, starting with the “Paradigm of Parsism” that we will address in the following discussion.

In what remains from the distant past, it seems that one of the historical turning points here coincides with the events described in the Shahnameh, particularly with the death of Esfandiyar, marking the end of the heroic epic era. This period witnessed significant internal and external conflicts. The content of the text Yadgar-e Zariran also refers to this era.

This narrative, preserved in Pahlavi script, shows that it has a Parthian origin and is the oldest known Iranian tragedy and play. The subject of this work is the conflict between Iranians and the Khyon (later known as the Turanians), centered around a struggle over religious change in Iran. By removing the layer added during the Sassanian era, which imbued it with Zoroastrian religious elements, this epic text can be seen as a record of collective memory from a distant time when a significant shift in thought and beliefs occurred, leading to a decisive separation and conflict between cities.

In the battle between the Iranians and the Khions, twenty-three of Gustasp’s brothers and sons, including Zarir, are killed. The young son of Zarir, Bastur, goes to the battlefield to avenge his father. He laments over his father’s dead body with tender words that form the main verses of this ancient elegy:
“Alas, Darvan, who twisted your departed soul? Alas, boar, who twisted your garment? Alas, little Simurgh, who twisted your mantle? (…) The winds have disheveled your hair and beard, and horses have trampled your pure body, and dust has settled on your collar. But what should I do now? If I dismount and take your head, Father, and remove the dust from your collar, I won’t be able to mount the horse again easily. May the Khions not arrive and kill me, just as they killed you. Thus, the Khions will proclaim that we killed Zarir, the Iranian general, and we killed Bastur, his son.”
Yadgar-e Zariran, translation by Zahaleh Amoozgar, Mo’in Publishing, 2013

Footnotes:

1. Totem
2. Icom
3. Sign
4. Symbol
5. Motif
6. Method
7. Style
8. Ecole
9. The story tells us that Farah flees from Jamshid, and he is ultimately cut in two by a saw.

10. It is possible that a certain ideology aimed to change the meaning of terms, thereby adding another layer of meaning to the words themselves. Examples of this can be found during the decline and dominant tendencies of Zoroastrian thought. In fact, understanding Iranian culture solely through the lens of Zoroastrianism is misleading, as some concepts have undergone transformations in meaning. For instance, Mehrdad Bahar, in several essays on Iranian culture, points out that “div,” originally meaning “light,” and “zhanda,” literally meaning “intellectual,” were used by the Zoroastrian priests in the Sassanian period as labels for heretics, and this term eventually became “zandiq” in Arabic.
11. Similarly, the sword in Shintoism in Japan carries a meaning beyond mere warfare.
12. Shafiei Kadkani, in the article “The Evolution of Image” in the Bukhara Journal, issues 68-69, references the development of this theme up to Saadi’s poetry.

13. Also refer to the topic of the passionate human in the second lecture of “Professional: Artist,” issue 70, Winter 97.
14. With this definition, using terms like “Kamalolmolk School” or “Saqakhaneh School” is incorrect.
15. For further reading on this topic, refer to: Dadbeh, Aryasp, article “Is Saqakhaneh a School?” Professional: Artist; Issue 57.
16. One of the fundamental intellectual transformations was the return to Roman legal foundations and the establishment of a new logic in Christian theology among early theologians in the 12th and 13th centuries. This includes thinkers such as Abelard, who is considered the founder of logical theology and to whom the establishment of logic is attributed. This movement, by revisiting and building upon Aristotelian thought and Roman law, created the grounds for a new concept of rights and the human subject as we entered the modern era. Thus, from another perspective, modernity or the new era and its manifestation in artistic works can be understood through the intricacies of the new legal system.

17. Some cultural historians, including Kumārasvāmi, describe the culture of northern India as distinct from Vedic India and in relation to Eastern Iran.
18. Therefore, in these societies, an individual’s acceptance into a tribe or clan through blood rituals is possible.
19. For further explanation, refer to the article “The Illusion of Reversal,” Professional: Artist, Issue 33, Summer 2009.
20. Yadegār-e Zarāyirān, an epic text from ancient times, translated by Zhāle Amūzgar, Mo’in Publications, 2013.