Lecture Six: The Formation of Iranshahri Thought and Culture: Foundations of the Persian School

An Introduction to the History of Art and Culture of Iran

Ariasp dadbeh

In this discourse, before fully delving into the ‘historical’ era or the Achaemenid Empire, we intend to highlight some of the preliminaries and backgrounds that shaped what we refer to as the ‘Persian School.’ Each of the points mentioned warrants further and more precise research. Some of these points are events that occurred in the interval between the era of painted pottery and the renaissance of Iranian culture, while others are the seeds of phenomena that gradually blossomed over time and revealed their outcomes in subsequent periods, which we will address more thoroughly in due course.

In the previous discourse, it was noted that in this region, life could not continue merely by following the natural course of existence and adhering to the dictates of nature. This process, which in other centers led to the birth of Hindu-Christian systems, would have been fatal and disastrous in this region. On the other hand, the excessive growth of consciousness within the realm of the mind and dreams was also impossible; a path that was followed in the ancient world, gradually weakening the efficiency of that system. Consequently, a culture emerged in this area where the continuity of life was accompanied by disruptions in consciousness and transformations in the way of living.

A bronze model depicting two men performing a ritual related to food and the table. Surrounding them are various vessels as well as structures that appear to be small-scale models of urban buildings.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the first break with the natural state of existence, characterized by food gathering and raids, led to the onset of agrarian life, which we have termed the period of “initial birth.” According to archaeological evidence, the Neolithic period seems to have lasted for nearly three millennia with almost no warfare. This is followed by a millennium of conflict, during which many cities are destroyed or heavily attacked. This era, lasting approximately one millennium, can be referred to as the middle period. Subsequently, the culmination of these experiences leads to the establishment of a renaissance, which reaches its peak with the foundation of the Persian Empire. ¹

Technical experiences and the formation of governance systems and interactions on smaller and more dispersed scales were tested and prepared across a vast expanse before the Median and Achaemenid periods.
This long middle period, if it can be so named, is a condensation of countless transformations and changes in all areas. On one hand, the advent of the Iron Age, following the changes in materials and the expansion of techniques from the Bronze Age, brought about a significant leap in tool-making. On the other hand, these transformations coincide with a period known in the epic history of the Iranians as the “Heroic Epic.

Changes in techniques and cultural exchanges led to transformations across numerous social structures, laying the groundwork for the emergence of a new order. This new order differs significantly from its predecessor; upon closer inspection, it appears as though the “spirit” has ascended to a higher level after breaking away from the natural state. A question arises, and its answer can only be found through persistence in the development of consciousness.
This new awareness necessitates a re-examination of the surrounding environment, the nature of relationships, and a renewed understanding of the mechanisms of creation and the celestial-earthly hierarchy. The culmination of all these factors manifests in a new social order.

Based on existing documents, we know that the rise of the Medes in the western Iranian Plateau coincided with local conflicts and invasions by northern nomadic tribes, as well as attacks from Mesopotamia and the west on cities. Many cities in the north and northwest were completely depopulated, and some Iranian tribes fled as far as the Balkans and Eastern Europe.
Thus, from the middle millennium onward, we gradually find evidence of the end of a relatively long period of peace and the beginning of conflicts and various measures to protect and safeguard cities. The difference at this stage is that the concept of war involves more sophisticated challenges compared to the earlier nomadic invasions.

In the latter half of the middle millennium, the civilizations of the Iranian Plateau entered the Iron Age, which introduced new capabilities such as the production of tempered steel. This technology significantly enhanced the strength of the Iranians against their adversaries (in contrast, the Pharaohs of Egypt continued to use bronze tools and weapons).

Based on oral traditions, written works, and archaeological interpretations of remaining signs, as well as the interpretation of artistic and literary works, we summarize the characteristics of this period as follows:

The division or fragmentation of the Iranian land, known in the Yasts as the era of Thrāi̯ēvanta or “threefold division,” and referred to in Iranian epic narratives as the reign of “Fereydun,” 2 marks the division of the land into three parts: Turan (to the east), Rome (to the west), and Iran (in the center). This division begins with the rule of Fereydun’s three sons: Iraj, Salm, and Tur.

The formation of the heroic families of Iran, such as the Sam Nariman family (in the eastern part of Iran, in Sistan), the Gudarzian family (in central Iran), and the Khashayarid family among others, occurs during this period. This social structure, over time, evolves into the system of the Vaspuharan or “Seven Great Espahbods,” who govern the seven major regions of Iran. In later periods, these prominent families see themselves as the continuation and development of this system from earlier times.
The names of these seven espahbods are preserved in Iranian historical and traditional records, such as the “Espahbod Karan” family in Sistan and the “Espahbod Mehran” family in Ray. This indicates that the regions of Iran, from very ancient times, were not identified based on ethnic or bloodline divisions but rather on the principles of rulership and heroism.

From the middle millennium onward, the heroic structure in Iran gradually transforms into a military institution. We find evidence of the end of a long period of tranquility and the beginning of conflicts and various measures for the protection and safeguarding of the land. At this stage, there emerges a distinction between the concept of warfare and the nomadic invasions that preceded agrarian culture. Warfare, which requires its own logic, replaces the primitive raids that had gradually diminished with the onset of settled life.

As briefly mentioned earlier, the accumulation of experiences led to the development of scientific and technical foundations and the establishment of institutions and administrative structures. Chronology, the understanding of tribes, medical systems, water management techniques, and the use of materials and kiln techniques for constructing large-scale buildings all saw significant growth.

A list of cultural and technical similarities among dispersed centers of civilization that are relevant to our study includes:
• Emergence of diverse and related languages
• Development of shared narratives and stories
• Common styles and techniques in architecture
• Similar musical instruments
• Efforts to create and utilize writing systems
• Creation of common decorative motifs
• Shared techniques in various textiles
• Common techniques in jewelry making
• Establishment of shared rituals and festivals
• Common games
• Evolution of cooking methods and dining customs

According to the traditional Iranian calendar, the time of Zoroaster’s appearance or the beginning of the Zoroastrian faith is placed within this middle millennium.3 This period marks the beginning of the conflict between earlier religious traditions and the new ideas, reflected in traditional Iranian history through the story of the battle between Rustam and Esfandiar, symbolizing the struggle between the Khashayarid family (Zoroastrian) and the Simurghian family (Narimanid). On the other hand, after the era of heroic wars, the emergence of the new religion sparks another conflict between the Iranians and the Turanians, as remembered in the epic Ayadgar-e Zariran.

From one perspective, the entry into this new phase of history began with intellectual debates. Despite these debates, the history of Iran, with its ups and downs, never saw a complete homogenization of intellectual and religious schools. Unlike some other foundational cultures, political will to enforce uniformity and establish a singular unity was generally unattainable, and attempts to achieve it would weaken and make the whole system vulnerable. In Iran, periods of cultural flourishing are typically characterized by cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity. During the formation of the Persian era, there is almost no evidence in ancient texts and Zoroastrian epics of a single official religion.

What we refer to as “Persian art” results from the convergence of local streams, merging into a great river. The Achaemenid Empire drew upon the cultural and technical heritage, and the experience of establishing power in smaller local civilizations, in Mesopotamia and the cities of the Iranian Plateau. It nourished and flourished, creating a new meaning.

The Achaemenid Empire was born from the intertwined experiences of the long preceding period, establishing the first empire on a vast global scale. ⁴ Iranian thought created an organization in which diverse countries, races, and languages were integrated into a single entity despite their multiplicity. The components of this empire were united through a vast administrative structure, which was the first example of a global administrative organization. It also boasted a powerful army that resisted the attacks of invaders. During this period, the early invading tribes were gradually disintegrating, while new invaders from the Parthian era onward were beginning to gain power again.
In this millennium, with technical advancements and access to new materials, new artifacts emerge that reflect the transfer of visual experiences from the painted pottery period to this era.

The foundations of what we call “epic thought” began with the advent of agrarian life. After a millennium of development, this period reached a stage where it reflected a new understanding of past narratives. This growth resulted from the accumulation of diverse experiences in organizing increasingly complex urban lives, while simultaneously distancing itself from past legacies and experiencing a break from the initial agrarian form. The ability to reference distant pasts, which had been left behind, is evident in the creation of epic narratives that kept alive the memory of ancient struggles and efforts, giving meaning to the shapeless mass of events and experiences, and transferring it to later periods.
The initial core and early form of many Persian literary stories belong to this era. Over time, these stories were continually renewed, evolving step-by-step with the knowledge and intellect of the era. They evolved into a collection of heroic and romantic epics and royal wisdom, from the Yasts to works like Ayadgar-e Zariran, Vis and Ramin, Bijan and Manijeh, Gershaspnameh, and thousands of smaller and larger oral and written tales with shared roots yet diverse forms. Some of these were recorded in Middle Persian texts (Parthian and Sassanian literature) in the form of Khodainama (books of kings). ⁵

The reflection of the rupture in consciousness during this period can be observed in the motifs and arts. One of the documents that attests to this new order is the famous Pazyryk Carpet.
The concept of a “garden” cannot be separated from the idea of “paradise,” as paradise is a grander garden with enduring beauty, representing one of the fundamental concepts in all Iranian culture and always holding a central position in Iranian thoughts and emotions. (Paradise is a walled garden encircled by multiple layers of barriers, typically seven, with one barrier being significantly wider than the others to protect it from the onslaught of evil).

To depict such a fundamental and universal motif, which is so close to people’s hearts and understanding, a simple design or specific scene would not suffice. It was necessary to convey the broader concept, and only abstract and decorative art was suitable for this task. This is not a mere imaginative interpretation, as it is confirmed by Iranians themselves; for example, a weaver has referred to this idea in an inscription woven into his carpet:
“A field of tulips it is, but not so / That the way is barred by autumn’s blow”
The Pazyryk Carpet features several borders, including a wide one, with its design elements such as the lotus flower, Persian rider, and griffin reflecting Iranian culture. According to the carpet’s discoverer, Rudenko, these elements evoke the imagery of Persepolis.
Source: “The Divine Garden of Paradise and the Design of Persian Carpets” by Ali Hosoori

Alongside all these gradual changes, some of which have been outlined, the meaning of order and norms in the Iranian world underwent transformation. “Duties” evolved, and from this new order emerged new treaties with the self (in the ethical sense), with existence (in terms of understanding measure and standards), and with other human societies (manifesting in the realm of power). The choice to act freely and the valuing of effort formed the foundations of what we call “epic” thought. The continuation of this lecture will be devoted to explaining its preliminaries.

Duties
One of the characteristics of new scholarship is the focus of scholars on the philosophical foundations of each culture, through which clear differences emerge that guide us to the fundamental intellectual bases. In the study of any culture, paying attention to work-specific traits, or duties, is particularly enlightening.

What we refer to as “function” represents the mental order, the structure of sensory functions, and a kind of intellectual attraction in each culture, which has a recursive and repetitive quality. Foundational research in anthropology reveals that among all human societies, there are underlying mental frameworks that influence numerous aspects, from understanding the world and expressing emotions to creating stories, organizing phenomena, and inventing and crafting artifacts. These mental frameworks are integral to the nature of each culture and may evolve over time through a reciprocal relationship with shifts in thought and social contracts. Every foundational culture undergoes changes in the “function-specific traits” of its intellectual system as it transitions from the mythic to the historical era.

What we call “function” has sometimes been referred to by other names such as “natures.” For example, Machiavelli, the precursor of modern political and historical thought, places significant emphasis on the role of the “natures of human societies” in the construction of power in his work The Prince. Montesquieu, considered the founder of social science, addresses a similar issue when he discusses the differences in the “natures of laws” between French and English societies in his The Spirit of the Laws, emphasizing that the establishment of laws and their enforcement depend on the historical “functions” of each society. (It is worth noting that new sciences approach their subjects through understanding “differences.”)
Now, returning to our subject of study, examining such mental frameworks and their evolution within Iranian culture is a significant topic. By shedding light on these underlying structures and their transformations, we can gain a deeper understanding of the evolution of awareness within this culture and its manifestations in the arts, through highlighting certain distinctions.

As mentioned, in the period we refer to as having “cosmic awareness,” humans lived in a world that, from the perspective of our current awareness, appears as an illusion. In this cosmic worldview, humans perceived the entirety of existence through the lens of a single overarching function.
During the mythic era, human awareness was focused on the dichotomy of opposites, understanding it as a dualistic function. The Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, is based on a conceptual framework of dualities such as “being or non-being,” with archetypal oppositions like good and evil, forgiveness and revenge, and life and death. In all blood-based rites, where the fundamental division is between “insiders and outsiders,” dualistic functions play a central role.

Georges Dumézil, the founder of comparative mythology, was the first scholar to specifically explore the role of “functions” in the cultural substratum. His project, which spanned from 1920 until his death in 1986, focused on studying the tripartite structure of functions in Indo-European myths. Dumézil and his followers view these functions as fundamental, recurring structures that underpin major aspects of wisdom, social philosophy, and religious thought. These functions influence understanding the workings of the world, perceiving cosmic hierarchies, establishing medical science, theology, literature, organizing social classes, artistic creation, and many other branches of knowledge and practice. Dumézil particularly illuminates these mental structures within Christianity and the structures of modern society and philosophy. The work of some contemporary philosophers, such as Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, is based on his theories.

Dumézil’s research on Iran is relatively sparse, and it appears that cultural transformations in Iran from ancient times onward were not a focus of his studies. The idea we are exploring here is based on the hypothesis that functions (خویشکاری‌ها) in the evolution of awareness in Iran may have transitioned from a tripartite to a quadripartite structure. The topic of Fereydun and the division of the world into three parts, or other examples with a tripartite substratum, all belong to an earlier period. We propose that, as awareness evolved, quadripartite functions gradually became dominant in Iranian culture, manifesting in social class divisions, architecture, ethics, and other areas.

According to Dumézil’s research on the evolution of Indo-European peoples, ⁶ a tripartite function gradually became dominant among these peoples, manifesting in various forms. For example, this tripartite structure is embedded in Hindu beliefs through the three principal deities—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—who represent the three major forces of the cosmos.

Similarly, the basis of Western Christianity is founded on the belief in the threefold Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), whereas, for instance, the faith basis of the Nestorian Church (the Church of Ctesiphon, belonging to the ancient cultural sphere) is dyadic, lacking the belief in the incarnation of the Father. Dumézil also identifies this tripartite function in the organization of social structures, the definition of social classes, and the establishment of power institutions; ⁷ In India, social categorization is defined by three major classes/castes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas/Rajanyas (warriors), and Vaishyas (producers). In Rome and Latin societies, social order is organized around Jupiter (sovereignty), Mars (warriors), and Ceres (the common people). ⁸ Later, this structure evolved in Europe into a balance of power among the three estates: the king, the clergy, and the warrior class. In the course of modern European developments, this division is reflected in today’s modern states, where civil powers are distributed among three branches: legislative, judicial, and executive.

This theme also manifests in art and architecture. For example, cathedrals typically feature three main façades and three entrance portals. Similarly, the medical systems of the Indian and Greek traditions are based on the recognition of three fundamental temperaments in humans (such as Vata, Pitta, and Kapha in Ayurvedic medicine).

Research by Dumézil has focused less on Iran, particularly on the cultural transformations in Iran from ancient times. It appears that in ancient Iran, the tripartite functions, which Dumézil identifies as Indo-European, were prevalent. For instance, the Zoroastrian tripartite doctrine of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds is a product of this period. Additionally, ancient Iranian stories often reflect a tripartite structure, such as in the tale of Firdawsi and the division of the world among three sons. This period is referred to in the Yashas as “thraetaona” or “three such things,” illustrating the concept of threefold division.

Just analyzing visual compositions and form structures, such as the triangular arrangements in Renaissance art, without considering the underlying layers of consciousness, does not lead us deeply into the world of the work. In European painting tradition, following the intellectual transformation of the era of Thomas Aquinas, even in color systems, ‘tonality,’ or the tonal triad, which involves creating a passage between two color tones, gradually replaced earlier methods. This reflects the transformation of underlying mental structures and the dominance of triadic functionalities in the system of consciousness.

The logic of the palette in European painting, as it solidified from the Renaissance period onwards, is entirely different from Iranian painting. In Iranian painting, each color is considered independently. Typically, alongside the primary colors, a metallic color is also present. Here, the balance of the image is not found in a ‘focal point’ but in the overall harmony of the entire picture.

On the other hand, these stories and the underlying structure within them show us that in very ancient times, a gradual rift emerged between Iran and the Indo-European peoples, resulting in fundamental differences in Iranian worldview. This is evidenced by the differentiation of devas from ahuras in the Gathas and Achaemenid inscriptions. What was recognized as divine forces (deva) among the Indo-Europeans here took on a negative role, continuing its existence in the form of ‘demon’ (div) and gradually giving mythological stories a historical flavor.

From this discussed period, works reflecting the fourfold functions gradually appear in Iranian culture, reaching their peak during the Parthian and Sassanian eras. This development likely has its roots in the agrarian experience of the region, which, as explained in previous discussions, has a fourfold climate where the distinction of four seasons is experienced in most areas. Along with the agricultural culture, four major festivals and four times of grain storage, known as Gahanbars, were held throughout the year. The fourfold division in agricultural culture was not limited to calendrical and ritual structures but also found more complex and abstract manifestations. For instance, in ancient Iranian culture, human existence was recognized in four parts: Ahu (both body and soul), Urvan (eternal soul), Farrah (the uplifting force of existence that flows in everyone from eternity to eternity), and Dena (conscience).

Similarly, social classes that were initially threefold gradually developed a fourfold structure, with each class wearing a specific color of clothing. The vastaryushans, middle nobility or peasants, wore blue; the vaspuhrans, high nobility or warriors, wore purple/red; the katouzyans, priests or magi, wore white; and the khsathra-vairya, rulers and kings, as a symbol of all, wore a combination of the three aforementioned colors along with green attire. ⁹
Time periods are also divided in Iranian thought into four eras of three thousand years each. Natural elements are categorized into four divine substances: water, wind, earth, and fire; and four foundational principles: Dena (conscience), Ormazd (Ahura Mazda), Vohumana (Good Mind), and Fravarti (Holy Spirit). ¹⁰
Our emphasis on the role of function and the differences arising from it is due to the fact that without understanding its effects, it is not possible to delve into the depth of spirit and grasp the artistic work, or to navigate to the fourth layer ¹¹, which we mentioned in previous discussions.

Although the vast domain of European art history is fundamentally based on Aristotelian ideas and the operation of the three-fold functions, there are specific moments when, during periods of stagnation or, conversely, at the peaks of creative upheaval, Platonic tendencies have re-emerged and offered new possibilities for the revival and transformation of European art. For example, at the zenith of French painting and at its subsequent decline, a collective of painters from the Nabi movement revisited Platonic traditions, leading to a notable and contemplative movement in the evolution of modern French painting.

For example, Iranian medicine, with its division of human temperaments into four categories, presents a different basis compared to Indian and European medicine. Later, Avicenna, while being well-versed in Greek medicine, established his own medical system based on the four humors: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Other exact sciences were also influenced by this transformation; Professor Henning notes that Iranians recognized the sky in four realms: the celestial stars, the lunar realm, the solar realm, and heaven.
The manifestations of this underlying mental framework are also abundantly reflected in the arts. We know that Persian poetry, in its historical evolution, began with a fundamental four-part structure in ancient couplets and quatrains, as well as in the Khusravi works. The narrative structure of Iranian epic stories and tales similarly often unfolds within a fourfold framework, involving four key characters in a dialectical process. This narrative pattern stands in contrast to European romances, where the plot frequently revolves around a triangular relationship.

Similarly, the primary colors in Persian painting are fourfold, with an additional metallic color such as gold or silver alongside the three main colors. In their writings, Suhrawardi, Shaykh Najmuddin Kubra, and Qadi Sa’id Qummi have explored the classification of colors and lights into four categories. For instance, Suhrawardi identifies the fourth color as the light of the human soul.
In ancient Iranian stories, the creation of Kiumarth — the first human — is depicted as a square. Similarly, in the explanation of the Wer-e Jamkard and the story of Jamsheed’s migration, a four-sided location within the earth is mentioned. The square plan, which gradually became predominant with the advent of settled life, forms the basis of Persian architectural tradition. This plan evolves and develops over time, showcasing its potential in Iranian architecture. The embryonic form of what later became the four-iwan architectural style is seen in the layout of the Tchahar Taq (Four Iwan) of Persepolis. Furthermore, the design of the Persian garden, which is a fundamental aspect of this thought, is structured based on a four-part function.

The four-part structure of “Dang” in Iranian music is present across different historical styles, melodies, and regions. Esteemed figures such as Abdulqader Maraghi and Safy al-Din have explicitly described its foundation as consisting of four successive tones: Muttlaq, Sabbabah, Bansir, and Khunsar.
Similarly, Persian carpets, unlike other woven items, achieve their aesthetic perfection through a structure based on four elements: the field, the border, the corner motifs, and the central medallion. Furthermore, we will explore in more detail how the principles of beauty and proportionality in Persian calligraphy are based on the dimensions of a square.

In the architecture of a church, the movement of the faithful into the space follows a line that intersects with another side, where the altar table for the Eucharist is spread, creating a cross (cruciform). The point where the two arms of the cross meet, which is the focal point of spatial balance, is the location of the apse. The design of the church space is such that the individual feels themselves at the point of equilibrium within a triangular formation.

It is important to refer to several historical texts and documents from Iran that substantiate the discussion of the fourfold functions, not only from the perspective of modern awareness and comparative studies but also explicitly in the writings of historical Iranian scholars and authorities.
For example, concerning social classes and categories, various sources refer to fourfold groups with slight variations in scope and nomenclature:

1. In the Oldest Extant Document: In the Gathas, society is divided into three classes: warriors, priests, and artisans.
2. In the Vendidad: A more recent text, a fourth class is added to these three.
3. In the Avesta (Yasna 19, paragraph 17): Mazda, in response to Zoroaster’s inquiry about professions, mentions four professions: fire priests (Āthravan), warriors (Rtastra), pastoral farmers (Kshatrya), and artisans (Dastvar).
4. In the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi: The people of Iran are divided into four groups: priests (Mobadan), warriors (Rtashtaran), farmers (Dehganan), and artisans (Dastvaran).

In the History of Tabari, regarding the Sassanian period, the classes of people are described as follows: scholars, scribes, artisans, and farmers (meaning warriors, priests, secretaries, craftsmen, and agriculturalists). In the Zin al-Akhbar, which provides a more detailed account, additional groups are mentioned; however, they can still be organized into four main categories: the wise, the warriors and soldiers, the scribes and astrologers, and the doctors, along with farmers, merchants, and craftsmen.

In Middle Persian literature, in the Shkand Gumani-k Vičar, a Zoroastrian theological text, the four virtues are referred to as the “Four Arts” (Chahār-Honar), which are: moderation, wisdom, strength, and art. Each of these virtues is associated with a specific class of people: moderation with the clergy, strength with craftsmen, art with warriors (linked to manliness), and wisdom with the wise farmers. ¹²

These differences highlight the dynamic nature of these classes and categories, which have evolved over time or in response to different circumstances.
In his book al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf, Mas’udi mentions four seals used by Khosrow Anushirvan, which reflect the Sassanian tradition of administrative division. These four seals were:

1. Seal for Taxation (Kharaj): Made of agate and inscribed with the word “Justice” (داد).
2. Seal for Property and Estates: Made of turquoise and inscribed with the word “Settlement” (آبادى).
3. Seal for Assistance and Support: Made of sapphire and inscribed with the word “Patience” (شكيبايى).
4. Seal for Couriers: Made of ruby, shining like fire, and inscribed with the word “Speed” (شتاب).

A similar system of four seals is also attributed to Jamshid, the legendary king of Iran. Additionally, in the transition of concepts from ancient Iranian sovereignty to the Islamic period, some sources attribute four seals to the caliphate of Imam Ali (ع), each representing one of the aspects of his governmental power. ¹³

Here, understanding the “functions” in different cultures is important because the interpretation of the “form” or “shapes” in artistic works of each cultural tradition can only be achieved in relation to the interpretation of the “ideas” and “content” behind them. In other words, in any intellectual text or artwork, forms are manifestations of deeper, underlying ideas and content. Therefore, one cannot use the conceptual frameworks or interpretative methods of one culture to analyze the relationships within a work or to understand forms in another culture without considering these foundational differences.

In Iranian architecture, water, as a mirror, reflects the sky’s light onto the earth (in contrast to Gothic buildings, where all design elements are aimed at elevating earthly existence towards the heavens). On the rippling surface of water, with the rhythmic pulsation of a fountain—symbolizing the spring of life—the details of the surrounding world, from the buildings to the plants, are mirrored in a symmetrical arrangement. This architectural relationship with water has a very old tradition in Iranian culture (such as the palace of Ardashir in Firouzabad, whose portico still faces an artesian lake), a characteristic that has gradually expanded and evolved into much finer subtleties in later buildings.

The design of buildings is based on a system of measurements with human proportions, each with its own specific name in architectural tradition. For example, the “Mardgard” is a measurement for the width of corridors, equal to the span of an outstretched arm. Rooms are named according to their size and light, such as “three-door” or “five-door,” which refer to the proportions and illumination of the space.

Moreover, compared to other cultural centers, the distinct social hierarchy and the relationship with the “absolute” in Iran have led to the characteristics of Iranian architecture not being confined to sacred buildings, tombs, or palaces. Instead, these features can be found everywhere—from shrines and schools to simple residential houses, manifesting in various qualities throughout.

For instance, the foundations of European works, whether in painting, architecture, music, or theater, often revert to the triadic structures and the dominance of the trinitarian system in the phenomenology of the historical spirit of these cultures. In other words, one cannot merely analyze visual and formal compositions, such as the triangular arrangements in Renaissance art or the works of Florentine painters like Raphael, without considering the underlying layers of awareness that shape the effect. Even in the realm of color theory, the principle of “tonality” or the tonal triad, which involves creating a passage between two color tones, is influenced by this foundational triadic structure in European painting traditions following Thomas Aquinas.

In Plato’s ideas, there is a noticeable influence from Zoroastrian thought, as he structures his philosophical system around the concept of the fourfold division, including (Ideas – Zeus – Logos – Forms) or (Knowledge – Courage – Temperance – Justice). Consequently, in the history of art, we find a familial resemblance between Iranian and European works, especially those emerging from Platonic ideas, whether in composition, color theory, or the logic of ornamentation and contrast. However, most European images exhibit an Aristotelian inclination, as the Christian trinitarian idea, with an Aristotelian interpretation of Christian theology, became dominant from the 13th century onward, fundamentally transforming European art. In artworks from before this period (before the 13th and 14th centuries), there are still images and spaces in European architecture where one can find a kind of spiritual proximity to Iranian art. This closeness is particularly evident in the art of the Byzantine sphere, influenced by the Eastern Church and the Augustinian theology. ¹⁴

One of the threefold structures of Indo-European origin is reflected in Aristotelian ethics, where the principle of “moderation” stands between the extremes of “excess” and “deficiency,” both of which are considered vices. Aristotelian ethics, with its educational objectives, dictates that excesses from both extremes should be corrected to establish balance. ¹⁵ This idea has notable similarities and differences with the ethical system in Iranian culture, which is based on a fourfold structure. In Iranian ethics, the concept of “Pact” (Peyman) is the fundamental basis for moral principles. ¹⁶

Covenant
As mentioned, the ethical system in Iranian culture shares similarities with what Aristotle elaborates in his Nicomachean Ethics; the most significant similarity is that both frameworks are based on the principle of moderation. ¹⁷
In the third book of the Dinkard, it is stated:
“The essence of the Zoroastrian faith is to return the excesses and deficiencies caused by the assault of the Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) upon the creations to a state of ‘moderation’, so that salvation and tranquility for all creations may be achieved.”

Mithras is one of the ancient deities of Zoroastrianism, whose name in modern language is associated with the Sun. In some myths, he is considered to be born from the spark created by the collision of two stones (an ancient object), thus being an entity born of light, often depicted in Parthian and Sassanian sculptures with solar-like rays. The story of Mithras is among the oldest in our culture, reflecting the idea of a luminous manifestation and the genesis of existence with a burst of light.

Mithras is also the god of affection, friendship, and covenant, and he battles against oath-breakers. Therefore, in the scene of the royal covenant, symbolized by the ring held by the king, Mithras stands as a witness and supporter. The exchange of rings in marriage oaths is a continuation of an ancient Mithraic rite in its modern and global form.

The corruption of the creations is caused by the invasion of two things that hold all the power of Druj: one is excess and the other is deficiency. When creation returns from the state of excess and from deficiency to the state of “mean”, it liberates all actions, embraces them with goodness, and “Dād” is restored.

In Zoroastrianism, the concept of virtue is distilled into a single term: moderation. In contrast, the doctrine of Ahriman is represented by two terms: excess and deficiency. However, as Shaul Shaked notes, there is a distinct classification of virtues and vices in Iranian tradition.

In the third book of the Denkard, the text categorizes attributes into two groups: “forward-moving” and “backward-moving”. Essentially, the text distinguishes between two types of virtues: one associated with “ascending time” and the other with “descending time”.

For example, in this tetradic system, “greed” is the extreme of “effort”, which is a forward-moving virtue. “Effort” is paired with another virtue of a backward-moving nature, namely “contentment” or “self-restraint”, with its extreme being “laziness” or “indolence”. These two pairs of opposing traits form a series of tetradic items, from the most excessive forward-moving trait to the most deficient backward-moving trait: greed – effort – contentment – laziness.

What is crucial here is the wisdom that can discern the appropriate time to choose between the two virtues of effort and contentment. ¹⁸
On the other hand, establishing balance in the realm of ethics can underpin the concept of “work” in any society. In fact, depending on the ontological perspective and the way ethical commitments are defined, “work” takes on different meanings in various cultures. In some contexts, it may imply “servitude”, while in others, it may be understood as “obedience”. As Hegel notes in his discussion of divinity and servitude, for the Roman, work was either entirely devoted to self-enjoyment or completely in service of others’ enjoyment. Consequently, in the Roman consciousness, activities directed towards public benefit or common good were not prominent. The three elements of ownership, fear of death, and personal enjoyment transformed the Roman “legal personality” into an isolated individual. In the context of ancient culture, the meaning of work was understood differently. The Old Testament mentions that: “The Sabbath is the day of rest for the servants, after six days of very hard work.” Hegel interprets this by stating that free people essentially do not require such excessive rest.

In the Iranian worldview, work is seen as a means of prosperity and a crucial support for Ormazd in improving the world and fighting against Ahriman. Work is considered a ritual of “assistance” (or “help”) ¹⁹ akin to “city-building”. From this perspective, performing work is regarded as fulfilling a great ritual rather than mere servitude.
The archives of Persepolis contain many records on clay tablets about the work of laborers and specialists, and the wages for each group, which highlight the significance of this concept.

However, the concept of “Pact” extends beyond social relationships. It is also evident in the daily ritual of worship, where an individual commits to the normative conduct of their thoughts, actions, and words, establishing a personal covenant with themselves.

In both Greek and Iranian ethical systems, moderation is emphasized. However, the Aristotelian system is based on a tripartite foundation, structured around the concepts of “excess, moderation, and deficiency.” In contrast, the Iranian ethical system is based on a fourfold framework, identifying two virtues between the extremes of excess and deficiency.
For example, consider this series: greed — generosity — thrift — stinginess. Or, viewed as two pairs: generosity — greed / thrift — stinginess. When choosing between two virtues (generosity or thrift), the determining factor is the element of “time.” Thus, one of the factors in ethical action at any given moment is the discerning and wise choice of each individual, which cannot be determined by a fixed rule alone.

In the Fourth Book of the Dinkard, it is stated:
“Iran has always praised the concept of ‘Pact’ and condemned excess and deficiency. In Rome, philosophers, in India, the wise men, and in other places, experts have praised the skill of speech above all. The wise men of Iran have esteemed the concept of ‘Pact’.”

The emergence of the concept of “Pact” in various manifestations of spirit, particularly in the arts, is also noteworthy. One of the most significant embodied forms of this concept is in architectural design, especially in ritual buildings that are primarily intended to provide a space for “renewing the pact.” Therefore, the space must have a “balance” grounded in the principles of measure and proportion specific to each culture.
In this context, different cultures adopt unique approaches in the design of their spatial plans and internal functions. For example, the spatial system of a cathedral and its internal function are based on a triadic structure. Here, the point of balance, or the mean, is the altar of the church—the place where the sacrament (Eucharist) is performed. Believers in a cathedral feel themselves at the point of balance within a triangular space.

In Iranian architecture, the terms “pīmaneh” (measure) and “pīmāyesh” (measurement) are used for determining space and length. ²⁰ In colloquial usage, “pey-mūn” or the act of “pīmāne-rāsāndan” refers to shaping a space that balances the spirit of the environment. In Iranian art, this balance and symmetry are achieved through a fourfold functionality.

To the astonishment of many, some fundamental elements of the Pazyryk carpet, including its arrangement based on a broad main border and several narrower borders with vegetal and animal motifs, as well as the division into rectangular panels with motifs arranged in multiples of six, have been repeatedly and diversely woven into carpets in later centuries in Iran.

In exploring the history of imagery in Iranian culture, this carpet stands as a significant document that reveals the establishment of a certain type of awareness manifested in art. Despite enduring through long periods, and perhaps through arid and pestilent seasons, it has thrived, and in each era, it has given rise to rich and varied new narratives.

The Epic Thought
The act of making a “pact” to participate in the battle for goodness, and the emphasis on choice, effort, and value in striving, creates a system that we term as “Epic Ethics,” which falls under the framework of “Epic Thought.” This is a contextual term that requires further explanation.

Epic (حماسه) is a well-known literary genre that deals with stories of battles and heroism. This general definition encompasses a wide range of narratives, from oral chants in tribal conflicts and tribal heroism to the grand descriptions of wars involving gods and supernatural forces in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Many human societies have their own versions of such stories, which have had varying histories depending on their circumstances. These epics have sometimes been marginalized or, conversely, have flourished and developed in unique directions according to the cultural nature of the society. For example, the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata are extensive narrations of battles that occur entirely within the cosmic realm and among gods; or, as Corbin points out, the epic tradition of the Germanic world was overshadowed by the rise of Christianity; or in China, the spread of Confucian ethics, which emphasized the cultivation of values related to complete obedience, extinguished the seeds of epic tradition.

Iranian epic stories, in the sense of literary genre, encompass a vast collection that has been recorded in numerous books. Ferdowsi created a coherent and largely comprehensive version of these stories in modern Persian verse. These tales provide a rich narrative of Iranian history, with all events occurring on earth and directly related to this land. While the heroes do perform acts of worship, the narratives do not focus on the deeds of gods but rather revolve around human heroes and their series of choices in challenging situations. In these stories, the central themes are not ethnicity or race but rather “fame” and “place.” ²¹ Battles occur between glory and commitment on one side and despair and tyranny on the other, with motivations not rooted in the dominance of an ideology, racial superiority, or plunder.

In these lectures, we utilize the term “epic” in a broader sense than merely referring to a literary genre. Our notion of “epic” encompasses an essence that can aid us in discussing various aspects of the Iranian world.
The foundation of this idea is based on a type of ontology that recognizes a conflict extending across time and manifests itself in diverse aspects of culture and art:

From end to end, the army of disbelief prevails,
But from eternity to eternity, the opportunity belongs to the pious.

A poem of Hafez

In this worldview, humans are agents in alignment with either the benevolent or the malevolent aspects of the cosmos. Here, awareness in opposition to the “fate of the cosmos” fundamentally pertains to “wisdom,” which is one of the most revered components of epic thought.
Such a struggle inherently establishes a form of “epic morality” where efforts to cultivate, in the broad sense of creating gardens and qanats, weaving carpets, constructing buildings, and beautifying artifacts, as well as establishing justice and fulfilling oaths, are all part of the ongoing battle against destruction, barrenness, ugliness, and breaches of promises and injustices manifesting on Earth.

We move beyond the general understanding of epic as a literary genre. In these lectures, we use the term “epic” in a broader sense than merely a literary classification. What we mean by “epic” is a core essence that can help us describe various aspects of the Iranian world.
Although it is clear that the characteristics of Iranian culture and thought are reflected in its “epic literature,” our focus here is on exploring the “epic nature of Iranian culture.” This involves understanding Iranian architecture, garden design, artistic motifs, and Persian literature—both poetic and prose works—in various genres, which sometimes carry a more complex form of this epic thought.

This essence gives rise to a type of “epic ontology,” where the story of the beginning and end of the cosmos finds meaning in its own definition of “time.” In other words, the foundation of this thought is based on an ontology that recognizes a struggle spanning across time and views humans as beings endowed with free will, ²² engaged in alliance with either the benevolent or malevolent aspects of the world. In this view, humans are not prisoners of fate — and this is a fundamental difference between epic and tragedy. The principle of free will represents a form of awareness against the “fate of the universe.” This awareness, generally referred to as “wisdom,” is one of the most esteemed aspects of epic thought. In the Shahnameh, wisdom is praised in anyone who possesses it, whether Iranian or non-Iranian — as exemplified by one of its most celebrated characters, Pirān Viseh, who is renowned for his wisdom in the Turanian army.

Identifying such a struggle fundamentally establishes a form of “epic ethics” where efforts to improve, whether through creating gardens and qanats, weaving carpets, building architecture, or beautifying artifacts, all align with a battle against ruin, desolation, ugliness, injustice, and betrayal on earth.
In future discussions, we will extensively explore the concept of epic in Iranian culture.

Some thinkers, including Corbin, have noted that the concept of the “Absolute” in Iranian thought is associated with light.
Mithra, in his mythological form as the god of oaths and measurement, manifests as the sun and light, which symbolize the dispeller of darkness and the essence of awareness.

One of Mithra’s symbols is the sun or the “Mithraic Cross” (✚), which appears with equal arms in Iranian culture. As previously mentioned, this motif on early pottery signifies the emergence of point and measurable dimensions of the world in agricultural consciousness and remains one of the foundational design patterns in Iranian culture. The principles of design in architecture, garden layout, and many motifs are based on this cross-like pattern.

The traces of Mithraic symbols in Christianity are also significant, from the alignment of Christmas with the birth of this deity to the symbol of the cross and various aspects of the Eucharist and other rituals.

Revelation
The understanding of the cosmos as a reflection of the heavens on earth is a common aspect of human awareness. In the initial discussions on the primary meanings of manifestation, during the era we referred to as mythic consciousness, we highlighted how phenomena such as the moon, fertility, and water are understood in terms of this reflective relationship. This reflective relationship with the heavens can be seen in various forms across human cultures, including the naming of constellations, the definition of deities, and countless other manifestations.

In Iranian culture, this reflective meaning is understood in the concept of “manifestation” and is foundational in various layers of ontological thought, philosophical ideas, and architecture and arts.
In Iranian thought, the movement or actualization of divinity within human existence reveals itself, meaning that human existence is part of the realization of that ideal or ultimate perfection.

Here, the relationship between divinity and existence is of the nature of “manifestation.” The context in which this meaning develops differs from other centers of thought, and these subtle differences, for example, compared to the creator-creature relationship or the world in the fluidity of Daoism, become apparent.
Some thinkers, such as Hegel or Corbin, have noted that Iranians perceive the manifestation of divinity in light, which, by its nature, dispels darkness and is associated with awareness. In this culture, manifestation begins with light. From the earliest examples, such as the birth of Mithras from the collision of two stones (ancient bodies) and the emergence of light, to the manifestation of truth through a series of lights in the thought of Suhrawardi, we find numerous examples of the evolution of this type of awareness.

(The manifestations of this semantic system in the design of light sources in Iranian architecture will be addressed in due course.) The differences remain enlightening; as previously noted, in Hindu thought, the first act of existence was the emission of a sound, and from this ontology, Vedic chant music is understood as a repetition of this primordial act.

In Iranian thought, the first manifestation is of light and comes from Ahura Mazda. As expressed in the line, “In the beginning, the light of your beauty emanated from manifestation,” the cosmic struggle begins, which will end in a time-bound era through humanity’s alliance with Ahura Mazda. In this world, the singular effective spirit is the “poetical human,” who is passionate and the sole seeker—”love emerged and set fire to the entire world.” Only this individual moves towards existence (Ahura Mazda’s wisdom), is the exclusive chooser, and can guide everyone towards virtuous thinking (Vohuman), towards the principle of truth (Asha Vahishta). This person is the sole caretaker of the eternal divine spirit (Spenta Armaiti), and embodies perfection and abundance (Haurvatat). Their soul is immortal and eternal (Ameretat).

In Iranian art, the essence of this relationship between humanity and existence is distilled into the core principles of the works. Although these principles have been transformed and renewed over time, traces of them are preserved in a specific understanding of existence and reflected in the art forms.
In the next lecture, we will explore the Persian school as the earliest foundation of this culture’s art, which gave rise to motifs that, despite periods of rupture and transformation, continue to be recognized in later centuries, especially in Persian literature. These motifs emerged, and their commonalities across visual arts, music, poetry, and literature correspond to the shared understanding that the Persian language has fostered in the realm of Iranian culture.

In Iranian culture, manifestation begins with light. From the ancient myth of Mithras’ birth to the manifestation of truth through a series of lights in Suhrawardi’s philosophy, we find numerous examples of the evolution of this type of awareness through various layers of culture.
The design of light sources in architecture is one of the expressions of this concept.

Sources

1. Ghirshman, Roman. The Art of Iran, Volume 1: Media and Achaemenid. Tehran: Scientific and Cultural Publishing.
2. Tafazzoli, Ahmad. History of Persian Literature Before Islam. Tehran: Sokhan Publishing.
3. Khalaji Motlagh, Jalal. Notes on the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi. Tehran: Encyclopaedia of Islam Publishing.
4. Shaked, Shaul. From Zoroastrian Iran to Islam, translated by Morteza Saqibfar. Tehran: Qoqnoos Publishing.
5. Piranian, Mohammad Karim, Ali Mohammad Ranjbar Kermani, and Gholamhossein Memarian. Stylistics of Iranian Architecture. Tehran: Pajohandeh Publishing.

Footnotes:

1. From one perspective, the Achaemenid era or the flourishing of the Parsian school can be seen as the pinnacle of the initial birth of agrarian life; from another perspective, including the Middle Ages, it can be considered the rebirth and renewed fertility of the initial seed, which, with the turning of a middle millennium and changes in older methods based on peaceful and non-warlike living, was the first Iranian Renaissance.
2. Thra – Se, Idun – Thus
3. In previous discussions, we mentioned that what led to the expansion of agricultural life was the emergence of a new idea that transformed ethics and the relationship of humans with existence and time. This can be clearly seen in the teachings of Zoroaster, to the extent that some Western scholars attribute the origin of this great revolution to the appearance of Zoroaster and trace his life back in time. For us, what remains of the ancient Zoroastrian texts primarily reflects an idea that took root and was nurtured among the people of this land, and is clearly echoed in Zoroaster’s hymns. Attributing this to the inspirations of a prophet is not particularly our concern.

4. In comparison, Greek thought did not extend politically beyond the “Polis” or city, where the Cite replaced the state (Ghirshman, Roman).
5. For familiarity with the list and summary of the mentioned texts, refer to: Tafazoli, Ahmad (1997).
6. This refers to all Nordic Germanic, Celtic, Latin, Greek, Norman, Flemish, Slavic, Saxon, Iranian, and Indian peoples.
7. In such a way that, by referring to the historical structure of power in Germanic society, the emergence of the “Third Reich” was considered inevitable. Even the three-part intelligence structure in the former Soviet Union can be explained by Dumézil’s research on the functions under three roles as comparative examples.

8. In Nordic and Scandinavian societies, the same structure of Thorr (warriors), Wodan (sovereignty), and Freicco (common people) is prevalent, and in Germanic societies, Thors (warrior), Odin (sovereign), and Freyer (people) are dominant.
9. From a certain period onward, the Iranian monarchy became an institution in itself and not merely selected by the warriors. This four-part structure underwent changes during the Parthian and Sassanian eras; notably, the emergence of craftsmen (Hūtaxšaptan) is significant. The craftsmen were settled in large cities, and the peasants formed a class outside of the major cities, gradually playing a crucial role in cultural transmission, with some of the greatest scribes arising from this social position.
10. This four-part structure was transferred to Greece through Platonic thought (Eidos, Zeus, Logos, Forms). We will discuss this further in a future discourse.

11. In previous lectures, it was briefly mentioned that in addition to the three layers of form, idea, and content named by Panofsky, one can also consider a fourth layer when engaging with any work of art, which we will discuss further in upcoming discussions.
12. For the recording of the names of these classes in Middle Persian (Pahlavi) and New Persian, and their Avestan equivalents, refer to: Khaleghi Motlagh, Jalal.
13. It should be noted that the Iranians preserved the ancient tradition of organizing the land and principles of state administration by translating foundational texts from Persian into Arabic (such as the collection of translations by Ibn al-Muqaffa’), and by influencing and taking control of the administrative apparatus of the Caliphate. In later centuries, they revived this tradition in the works of Mas’udi, Jahiz (Kitab al-Taj), and others. For further reading on seals, refer to Shaked, Shaul (2002).

14. Saint Augustine, as one of the Church Fathers, initially had Manichaean-Mazdaean inclinations and then, upon accepting the new faith and converting to Christianity, integrated his Platonic interpretation into Christian theology. We will discuss the relationship between Platonic thought and Mazdaean ideas in more detail in a future discourse.
15. Shaul Shaked points out that the stance of Aristotelian thinkers of the Middle Ages, such as Maimonides, is such that what they condemn in some people, they overlook in others! There is no indication of such a perspective in Iranian thought, as excess from either side is not merely a state of behavioral imbalance but is inherently demonic. Additionally, one of the other differences between Iranian thought and Greek ideas is the existence of an unseen or spiritual being of each person in Mazdean concepts, which is decisive in thought and action.
16. For further reading on the subject of “covenant,” in addition to exploring primary cultural sources, referring to the studies of Shaul Shaked is enlightening.

17. According to some researchers, this theme entered Greek thought along with the transfer of Iranian books and works during the Macedonian period, while others believe this idea demonstrates the influence of Greek thought on Iranian thought.
18. Shaul Shaked notes: Some details of this discussion, such as the wisdom that recognizes the right time and can guide towards correct attributes, have similarities with Aristotle’s discourse on the knowledge of episteme, but these discussions in Iranian writings are based on fundamental elements that are not seen in Aristotelian writings.
19. The esoteric sect of Ahl-e Haqq, continuing an ancient tradition, calls itself “Yar-San.”
20. For further reading on the use of the term “Peymoon” among traditional Iranian architects, refer to the studies of Master Mohammad Karim Pirnia.

21. Here we use the term “race” equivalent to the European “Race,” which is by no means an exact equivalent. In Iranian languages, we do not find a complete counterpart for this word. “Race” is used to categorize human groups based on physical and biological differences. In Persian, “nezhad” means essence, lineage, and generation, and compounds such as Jado-Nezhad, Dehqan-Nezhad, Farrokh-Nezhad, and Sepahbod-Nezhad indicate the different meanings of the word in these two cultures. Ferdowsi repeatedly used “nezhadagi” (nobility) as synonymous with “virtuousness” or “capability”: “Is there any skill without noble essence? / Have you seen anyone noble without skill?”
22. Another manifestation of this culture can be found in the structure of the rituals commemorating Imam Hussein (AS) and the fervor that arises in pledging to fight alongside him, expressed as: “Every day is Ashura and every land is Karbala.”

23. The “idea” in each cultural tradition finds a different foundation and imagery. In Christianity, the idea is the “Logos” or absolute perfection. European art, in its historical evolution from antiquity to the period of Christian dominance, has specific themes. Christianity became the creator of the common spirit of European art history, and the works produced within this shared context follow the idea that the journey of the Logos (Word) towards otherness in the world of nature returns to its own realm, and the spirit manifests itself; that is, the primal nature of man is elevated in his secondary nature. The best example to explain this complex process is perhaps the genre of “self-portrait” in painting.